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After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the Muslims and Miao people of China against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the Miao Rebellion (18541873) in Guizhou, the Panthay Rebellion (18561873) in Yunnan and the Dungan Revolt (186277) in the northwest. [158], It was estimated in the 1850s that wages around the capital of Beijing and the Yangtze delta region for a farmer was between 0.99-1.02 taels a month assuming every day was worked this would amount to roughly 12 taels a year with over 400,000,000 citizens in 1890 the level of taxation was extremely low. A British company built the 19km (12mi) ShanghaiWoosung line in 1876, obtaining the land under false pretenses, and it was soon torn up. The remainder was primarily for the costs of the Sino-Japanese war and the indemnity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki amounting to over 382,000,000 taels. Calligraphy and painting[173] remained a central interest to both court painters and scholar-gentry who considered the four arts part of their cultural identity and social standing. As Ming control disintegrated, peasant rebels conquered Beijing in 1644, but the Ming general Wu Sangui opened the Shanhai Pass to the armies of the regent Prince Dorgon, who defeated the rebels, seized the capital, and took over the government. [34], The first seven years of the young Shunzhi Emperor's reign were dominated by Dorgon's regency. They blame ugly wars and diplomatic controversies on imperialist exploitation by Western nations and Japan. The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors practiced this form of Tibetan Buddhism as one of their household religions and built temples that made Beijing one of its centers, and constructed a replica Lhasa's Potala Palace at their summer retreat in Rehe. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing. To guarantee this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between the Jurchen and Khorchin nobilities, while those who resisted were met with military action. Following China's defeat in the Opium Wars, Western colonial powers forced the Qing government to sign "unequal treaties", granting them trading privileges, extraterritoriality and treaty ports under their control. However, the Qing dynasty used gunpowder to create the world's first machine guns, which could fire many bullets without reloading and held as many as 28 bullets at a time. Officials in other parts of the country were also blamed for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism. Together, the two former enemies met and defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in battle on May 27, 1644.[26]. The Qing dynasty, also known as the Manchu dynasty, ruled over China for a period of 268 years from 1644 to 1912. They often showed off their learning by collecting objects such as scholars' stones,